Existentialism

Ques. Discuss in brief the common views/thoughts shared by all existential philosophers and also the points in which they differ from another.


Ans. 

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that arose in the nineteenth century, includes a number of thinkers who emphasize common themes, but whose ultimate metaphysical views often diverge radically because they believe the universe is unfathomable. Philosophically the term “existentialism” came to be associated primarily with the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Many other philosophers who are often tied to the existential movement, such as Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel, and Karl Jaspers, rejected the term “existentialism,” though they continued to deal with existential themes broadly construed. In German, the phrase Existenzphilosophie (philosophy of existence) is also used. Some of the common themes that unite these various existential thinkers are anxiety, boredom, freedom, will, subjectivity, awareness of death, risk, responsibility, and consciousness of existing. But they differ in their point of views and also how they regard God or refuse the existence of God.

 

Perhaps the central issue that draws these thinkers together, however, is their emphasis upon the primacy of existence in philosophical questioning and the importance of responsible human action in the face of uncertainty. The main thing that all philosophers were in common was a concern about human existence and the conditions and qualities of the existing human individual.

 

The origin of existential philosophy is the Greek philosophy which is the ‘origin of all philosophies’. Although as a movement, existentialism is considered mainly a nineteenth-century phenomenon; its roots go back to earlier existential thinkers, such as Blaise Pascal in the seventeenth century, and particularly Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche in the nineteenth century. Both Kierkegaard and Nietzsche emphasized the subjective element in thinking and the primacy of the will over purely logical or conceptual objectivity. In the twentieth century, Heidegger’s notion of “being-in-the-world” and Sartre’s idea of “existence preceding essence” became two of the most important themes in existential thought. Other more Christian or theistic existential perspectives were also developed

Although there is no ‘system’ of existentialist philosophy, it has basic themes can nevertheless, be discovered in some representative existentialist thinkers. If we discuss their thoughts, it will be also cleared on which points they agree and differ.

It is a common matter that all existentialists have rejected the idea of traditional God and religion. Many of them did not accept the idea of God while others explained God, religion and even human existence from different point of views. Regarded this difference existentialists are divided into two groups- theistic existentialists and atheistic existentialists

 

Kierkegaard, Marcel and Jasper are the chief exponents among the theistic existentialists. Among them Kierkegaard is most renowned.

 

Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) was a Danish philosopher. Many of the themes of contemporary existentialism were first expressed in his writing. He was born in a wealthy Lutheran family which was extremely religious. But even then, he suffered from a sense of guilt and this was very distributing for him. He saw the same condition in almost everywhere in the society and felt that the traditional religion could not give peace and purity. This brought his mental sickness and he began to dislike greatly the social rules and traditions. He sought a way of his own and disliked all who were against his personal freedom.  In this way he gave birth to the existential philosophy where much importance was given on man and his personal existence, freedom and responsibility.

 

Kierkegaard established the idea of purposive belief in God as it is necessary. He thinks like this because man himself, according to him has created the God. If this is the fact then what is there to believe? But even then the harmony and peace of his belief in the absolute ‘One’ and therefore, man should accept the idea of God out of his sense of responsibility. Kierkegaard divides human existence into three parts-

 

Ī. The aesthetic stage,

ĪĪ. The ethical stage and

ĪĪĪ. The religious stage.

In the aesthetic stage, a person lacks individuality as he has no identity then. This is a stage where nobody remains as none. None is aware of his existence. When person reaches the ethical or moral stage, he gains this individuality particularly, but it does not come completely until he reaches the religious stage. The moral stage brings some awareness in man. So he exists and feels responsible but the responsible comes completely when he feels the urge to be a part of the ‘One’ in the last stage. He gains complete existence when he understands that God exists and the urge to submit himself to God. Kierkegaard says, “The more you become individual, the more you become religious”.

Thus existence in the theistic existentialism is completely found in the transcendence of human beings to the religious stage where one becomes completely aware of God and goes to the peak where he becomes ‘One’ with him.

He thinks that a person can gain the absolute individuality by becoming God himself and this is possible by believing strongly in God. This God is not the traditional God. It is the personal God of the believer.

Besides this transcendence, there are two other factors that Kierkegaard has put emphasis on. They are- dread and existence.

 

He says that dread is a feeling different from fear. It is tremendous fear without a particular cause. It comes out from confusions when men are uncertain about their origin and their goal. Such dread has brought the philosophy of existentialism that has tied to show a way in between these confusions and uncertainty.

Theistic existentialists like Kierkegaard, have given great emphasis on consciousness as this gives existence and complete existence comes in the union between ‘being’ and ‘Being’.  According to Kierkegaard, humans with awareness of this existence are ‘beings’. A person cannot be considered ‘being’ unless he gains consciousness about his existence. Thus to exist and become a being one should gain consciousness in him. Kierkegaard says ‘beings’ are not only conscious of themselves but also of God. This awareness is a purposive one as it is necessary. The conscious existence of God is ‘Being’ and people exist with the awareness of the ‘being’ himself and the absolute ‘Being’. According to the theists, the being’s love for the God creates responsibility in him. He does something good for him and all to satisfy the ‘Being’. In this way, responsibilities come from the relation of ‘being’ and ‘Being’.

 

Kierkegaard was strongly against of the Hegelian theory. Georg Wihelm Friedrich Hegel’s (1770-1831) ideas were based upon a collective viewpoint. He gave importance to social rules and said that man should advance with the society. But Kierkegaard thought this nonsense and not acceptable as it does not give individual freedom to men.

Hegel did not say anything against individuality, but he expected it to some extent. Hegel also said that the state as an organization whose purpose is a particular goal. It is the objective spirit whereas the collective spirit of the people makes the absolute spirit. He has spoken in favour for collective freedom where Kierkegaard differs as it hampers personal freedom.

Karl Jasper (1883-1969) was a famous German existentialist who was influenced by Kierkegaard and his thoughts are also theistic. He was a student of psychology and medical science and he modified this philosophy which made it different from Kierkegaard.

According to Jasper, not only man is uncertain but also his faith is also uncertain. He said that no religion is completely true. All have some false in them. He also protested his own religion Christianity saying that it is not the only true religion.

Jasper believed that all people must learn about themselves in ‘limit’ situations such as death, guilt and failure. These situations show the limitations of man. He also believed that a man can have existence and gain responsibility from the relation between his ‘being’ and ‘Being’.

As Jasper, Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) centered his existentialist philosophy upon the problem of ‘Being’, particularly upon the question “What am I?”

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a French writer who becomes famous as an intellectual and literary leader of existentialism. His form of philosophy is atheistic and his atheistic existentialism is regarded as the truest of his kind. He is the most important and renowned existentialist who is still an enigma to most people. All his writings show that he was obsessed with the idea of God. The absence of God distressed him very much.

 

Sartre’s existence is different from that of  René  Descartes (1596-1650) . Descartes declares ‘Logito’ that means “I think, so I exist”. When one becomes conscious of oneself, one exists. But Sartre says that when we become aware of ourselves, we not only exist but also exist in presence of other things around. Thus existence comes with the awareness of oneself and others.

Sartre’s view on God is that he cannot exist. He is dead. He says that the idea of  God is self contradictory and illogical and thus he cannot exist at all. Sartre thinks that a person is free without God and due to this freedom, the sense of responsibility has been created. If God existed, no man would be free and responsible for anything. But as man is so , it is clear that God is not there. But this freedom is also a curse to man.

Sartre says that absolute freedom brings absolute responsibility and this responsibility makes life uneasy and full of problems. As man is free, he has to choose what he thinks best by the sense of responsibility. At this point, Sartre shows the spirit of humanism too. Because he thinks by the decisions of man, only man and the whole mankind should be saved. Man should choose what will satisfy his sense of duty and himself. Thus, determining anything, is man’s responsibility, not God.

Sartre gives stress on three terms that are necessary to gain existence. They are-

Ī. Consciousness

ĪĪ. Being for itself (‘pour-soi’)

ĪĪĪ. Being in itself (‘en-soi’)

‘Pour-soi’ and ‘en-soi’ terms are discussed in Heidegger’s (1889-1976) philosophy and consciousness is the term that is created by these two terms. Sartre says that there is a gap between a person and his consciousness. This gap is nothingness and this nothingness is sacred by consciousness itself. He thinks that ‘nothingness’ is there to create the ‘being itself’ though he is an absolute atheist and speaks strongly for personal freedom, he does not say that man can do whatever he likes. Man is a responsible being and what is good for one and all it is not true that man will be right in every selection but he should try to select the better way for himself and others around.

Albert Camus (1913-1960) was a famous literary person of Algeria whose ideas showed the signs of an atheistic existentialist. Such signs are clearer in his novel “The Outsider” where he shows the way of the world and traditional religion as an absolute inhuman freedom and individuality. The hero does not cry at his mother’s death but goes away indifferently to share bed with a girl and who expresses his strong mental suffering by killing a man is on the other day is hated by all, tried and punished severely. Killing a man is undoubtfully a sin, but the inability to cry and feel free after death of long suffering mother is no extra-ordinary. Different person show different reactions and final consolation differently but the untraditional ones are always hated and punished. This show that the traditional world and religion cannot think and accept anything beyond the tradition and common ways and in this way, they are not able to free the truth. Camus says that the human life is based on lies and illusions, and the world and religion that are around us are all absurd. This absolutely made Camus follow and preach the ideas of atheistic existentialism in his writings.

Therefore, atheistic existentialism is that which shows the presence of man’s freedom and responsibility due to the absence of God. Both kinds of existentialism, whether theistic or atheistic, show the humanistic spirit as it removes man from confusion between different faiths and works for the well being of mankind by proper use of the sense of responsibility.

 

These discussed ideas are the common views given by all existential philosophers and they differs in the ideas of God’s existence, how He exists, individual freedom and many question like these.

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